This policy brief highlights the
significant progress made on the millennium development
goals (MDG) for gender equality and education. Focus is now
on systematic measures... Show More +
to increase access to improved
outcomes from a more gender responsive education. The MDG
targets to achieve gender parity in net enrollment at all
levels of education are on track to be met by 2015,
especially if disparities at the provincial level are
addressed. The challenge remains to mainstream a gender
perspective in education which involves assessing the
implication for females and males of any planned action,
including legislation, policies or programs in education, in
all areas and at all levels. Gender-responsive education
programs consider females and males concerns as an integral
dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of education policies and programs. Show Less -
Type: Brief
Report#: 73031
Date: March 7, 2013
The report is divided into two parts.
The first three chapters show that the vast increase in
education resources has not been accompanied by a similar
increase in learning... Show More +
outcomes, and thus highlight the urgent
need to improve the quality of spending. Chapter one starts
by describing the complex financing and governance systems.
With this policy framework in mind, Chapter two focuses on
the 20 percent rule, analyzing its consequences for budget
planning and management and examining where resources went
after this vast increase in spending. The chapter also
provides some estimates of the cost of meeting future
government objectives, in the context of discussions on
expanding compulsory education, and broadening teacher
certification. Chapter three looks at education outcomes,
reviewing the significant improvements in access and equity,
as well as the worrisome trends in learning outcomes. It
points to improving the quality of education and expanding
access to secondary and above (especially for the poor) as
the main challenges in the sector. Given the cost of
achieving these goals, and the fact that current expenditure
patterns are unlikely to lead to improvements in learning
outcomes, the chapter concludes that improving the quality
of spending in education is now critical. The second part of
the report focuses on how to improve the quality of spending
in order to continue expansion and improve learning
outcomes. In chapter four, the quality of spending issue is
divided into two areas: i) reassigning or improving programs
at the central level, and ii) improving management at the
district and school levels. At the central level, this
chapter analyzes the Scholarships for the Poor program (BSM)
and recommends that it be expanded and improved. At the
sub-national level, the report explores how a combination of
more efficient teacher management and stronger support for
schools can improve efficiency and learning outcomes, and
what the central governments role should be in ensuring
that these changes occur. Finally, chapter five summarizes
these recommendations, providing a framework for improving
the quality of spending and, ultimately, ensuring that this
spending leads to an improvement in the quality of the
Indonesian education system. Show Less -
Type: Public Expenditure Review
Report#: 73050
Date: March 1, 2013
This policy note summarizes the findings
and recommendations from the recent Indonesia education
Public Expenditure Review (PER), which examines in detail
how additional... Show More +
resources were spent and the extent to which
they have translated into outcomes, with the ultimate
objective of providing recommendations to improve outcomes
by improving the quality of spending. Show Less -
Type: Brief
Report#: 76404
Date: March 1, 2013
Author:
Cerdan-Infantes, Pedro; Makarova, Yulia;
Al-Samarrai, Samer; Chen, Dandan
Indonesia is the world's fourth
most populous country, with more than 238 million people
living in an archipelago comprising over 17,000 islands.
Over the past decade... Show More +
the Indonesian economy has experienced
positive economic growth, reduced poverty, and made
continued progress towards many of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). For example, Indonesia has already
met and surpassed projected reductions in the number of
underweight children under five years old to below 18
percent and is on track to meeting its targets for reducing
overall child mortality and the targets for achieving
universal basic education. While clear progress has been
made on reducing poverty rates, inequality has persisted,
with the result that many children and families have not
shared in these gains. Over 30 million Indonesians live
below the poverty line (US $2 per day) and half of all
households are clustered around the poverty line. Of the
poor, 65 percent currently live in rural areas. For these
families, national economic improvements have brought only
modest gains in health and education, putting
children's development at risk and threatening national
progress. A notable achievement for Indonesia is that
primary school enrollment is now near 100 percent for boys
and girls of all income levels. However, as children move
through the primary years, the enrollment disparities seen
in Early Childhood Education and Development, or ECED
services re-emerge. Educational attainment profiles reveal
that while almost all children from all segments of society
start primary school, children from poorer households and
children from rural areas have more difficulties progressing
from lower levels of education to higher levels. Only 55
percent of rural children make it to junior secondary
school, and less than a quarter enroll in senior secondary.
In contrast, 80 percent of urban children make it to junior
secondary school and almost two-thirds enroll in senior secondary. Show Less -
Type: Other Education Study
Report#: 73358
Date: March 1, 2013
Indonesia, like many middle income
countries, has difficulty providing universal access to
education and adequate access to healthcare, particularly in
poor and rural... Show More +
areas. To tackle these problems, the
Government of Indonesia launched two large-scale programs in
2007. The programs both relied on cash transfers, but one
targeted households and one targeted communities. In both
cases, the transfers were designed to encourage families to
meet basic health and education indicators, including
prenatal visits for pregnant women, childhood immunization,
regular weight monitoring, and school attendance. To push
communities to focus on the most effective policies, a
portion of subsequent year grants is based on how well
communities do in meeting the previous year's health
and education targets. In this way, the program takes
aspects of conditional cash transfer and pay-for-performance
programs and reformulates them to encourage community-wide
performance and accountability. In order to test the
effectiveness of linking grants to the previous year's
performance, a second version of the program was carried out
in which communities received the money irrespective of the
previous year's performance. The grants have ranged
from an average of $8,500 in 2007 to $18,200 in 2009. This
World Bank supported program now reaches about 5.4 million people. Show Less -
Type: Brief
Report#: 75655
Date: February 1, 2013
Influenced by the condition of young
children within its own country and by the pattern of
international evidence about the value of early childhood
education and development... Show More +
(ECED), the government of
Indonesia has implemented policies and programs that
prioritize the early years of children's lives. The
first critical step was taken in 2001, when a new
directorate dedicated to early childhood was established
within the Ministry of Education and Culture. The second
critical step was taken when early childhood education was
included in a succession of key policy documents-the
National Education System Law No. 20 in 2003 and the
Ministry of Education and Culture's Strategic Plan
(Rencana Strategis or Renstra) in 2004. Despite such
progress, the major challenges that Indonesia faces today
are also akin to those faced by many other middle- and
low-income countries. The experiences and research results
discussed in this book are: researchers in early childhood
development and program evaluation, policy makers within and
outside of Indonesia, providers of early childhood services,
professional development providers, and advocates for
quality early childhood services. The evidence presented in
this book reinforces that multiple influences affect
children's development in the first years of life.
Family poverty is an important mediator of the influence of
community resources and children's innate abilities.
Increased access to early childhood services can have
positive effects on development outcomes, even in the short
run. These services can buffer the effects of home
environments that are not sufficiently stimulating and can
encourage parents to increase their use of practices that
will promote their children's development. Policy
makers and practitioners in Indonesia and countries around
the world have made important progress in understanding the
importance of these strong foundations for later success. As
the next generation of development goals are considered,
early childhood education and development is sure to be a
central focus. Continued emphasis is needed on sustainable
financing and ensuring quality as governments pursue agendas
focused on the expansion of ECED services. Show Less -
Type: Working Paper
Report#: 75437
Date: January 1, 2013
Author:
Hasan, Amer; Hyson, Marilou; Chang, Mae Chu
The evolving nature of education system
and the increasing complex challenges facing individual
teachers and the teaching profession as a whole are of
immense importance... Show More +
in Indonesia. The Indonesian teacher
reform was designed and is being implemented as a genuinely
comprehensive program. From its beginning, it has therefore
considered and responded to all of the necessary stages of
an effective teacher management and development process. The
importance of this reform is further underlined by the
efforts made by the Ministry of education and culture,
supported by the World Bank, to examine following points:
(1) the quality of existing (pre-reform) and new
(post-reform) teachers in the system; (2) the promotion of
higher standards and enhanced competencies for teachers
through more effective processes of recruitment, teacher
education, certification, remuneration and other incentives,
ongoing professional development and support, and career
promotion or progression; and (3) the impact of these
actions on teacher behavior and knowledge, student
achievement, and the financing and efficiency of the
education system. Thus, the World Bank team, with the
Indonesian Ministry of national education, designed and
managed a wide range of research projects and program
support activities that, taken together, tell the story of
the design, implementation, and impact of this reform. In
order to reduce the budgetary impact of the certification
program, the inefficiencies associated with teacher hiring
and deployment need to be addressed. Attention will also
need to be paid to staffing standards in small schools which
are a key driver of low student-teacher ratios. But the
incentive of both professional status and professional pay
is now attracting more candidates into teacher education at
the expense of other fields. The original intention of the
teacher law was to put in place a framework of effective
policies and procedures which would both assure the quality
of the process and its products and encourage continuing
professional development. Show Less -
Type: Working Paper
Report#: 75532
Date: January 1, 2013
With the globalized economy,
well-educated youth will be critical to Indonesias
competitiveness in the future. Demand for skilled workers
will increase with skill-oriented... Show More +
technological change. In
addition, a large pool of skills also facilitates knowledge
spillover and attracts technology imports. In the past
decades, significant changes of Indonesias labor market
have already taken place. Non-agricultural jobs increased
significantly, and skilled labor in non-agricultural sector
is on higher demand. In the meantime, higher level
professional and managerial jobs have also increased. In
contrast, unskilled, agricultural, and administrative
workers are on lower demand. Overall, the earnings
differentials between people with different education levels
are significant. The marginal returns to higher levels of
education - senior secondary or tertiary level - are
increasing. How to educate the youth and turn them into
productive labor force and future leaders is closely linked
to the countrys future. This sector report assesses
Indonesias senior secondary school system from three
angles: (1) how well does the senior secondary education
prepare the Indonesian youth for transition? What are the
outcomes? Is there equitable access? (2) How are the senior
secondary schools in Indonesia prepared for delivering their
promises? Do they have adequate resources and inputs? (3)
How is the system prepared? Are there effective quality
assurance mechanisms? Is the system financing arrangement
adequate? The report ends with policy recommendations. Show Less -
Type: Policy Note
Report#: 73763
Date: December 1, 2012
Author:
Chen, Dandan ;
Setiawan, Imam ;
Negara, Siwage
As part of a broad decentralization of
governance responsibilities to districts, the Indonesian
government adopted school-based management (SBM) principles
through regulations... Show More +
in 2003. To further encourage more
school autonomy, a grant program to schools, the School
Operational Assistance program (Bantuan Operasional Sekolah
or BOS), was established in 2005. Because of the limited
scope of past research on the implementation and effects of
SBM in Indonesia during its nine years of implementation,
the Ministry of Education and Culture and the development
partners expressed the need to undertake a study that aims
to (1) provide a nationwide quantitative and qualitative
status report on the implementation of SBM, (2) identify
factors associated with successful practices of SBM, and (3)
assess the effects of SBM on student achievement. The study
was carried out in 2010 and 2011, and this summary provides
a succinct account of the status of SBM implementation in
Indonesia. It is based on face-to-face surveys of
principals, teachers, school committee members, and parents
in 400 elementary schools; surveys of district staff in 54
districts; and case studies in a subsample of 40 schools.
The findings will be of interest not only to the government
of Indonesia and development partners, but also to education
administrators, principals, teachers, and all those in
Indonesia and elsewhere who are implementing or thinking
about implementing some form of school-based management. Show Less -
Type: Working Paper
Report#: 73359
Date: December 1, 2012
Author:
Marshall, Jeffery ;
Vernez, Georges ;
Karam, Rita
Indonesia has seen remarkable progress
in education over the last 10 years. Access to primary
education is near universal and participation in secondary
education, particularly... Show More +
for the poorest students, has grown
rapidly. Despite these achievements, significant challenges
remain access to Early Childhood Education and Development
(ECED) and post-basic education remains limited and
international learning assessments show that the quality of
education is low. Improving education quality and expanding
access to post-basic education will require a better use of
the existing resources devoted to education. In the last
decade, student-teacher ratios in Indonesia have fallen to
levels that are low by international standards because the
size of the teacher workforce has grown more rapidly than
student enrolment. Existing ratios are below international
benchmarks associated with good education quality and recent
evidence in Indonesia shows that, at these levels, the
relationship with learning outcomes is weak. Put another
way, analysis suggests that increasing student-teacher
ratios from these low levels would not adversely affect
student learning outcomes. The impact on the education
budget of increased teacher hiring has been compounded by
the ongoing teacher certification program. It is important
to recognize that improvements to the current distribution
of teachers will take time to implement. Many of the
re-forms require changes to the way teachers are trained and
deployed. In order to do this, the necessary training
opportunities and revised regulations on how teaching is
organized need to be developed. Education is central to
Indonesia's ambitious plans to accelerate economic
growth and reduce poverty. If these plans are to be
achieved, the education system needs to provide broader
access to education opportunities and improve the quality of
existing provision. Show Less -
Type: Brief
Report#: 74155
Date: November 29, 2012
Author:
Samarrai, Samer Al ;
Setiawan, Imam ;
Syukriyah, Daim
Indonesia is the world's fourth
most populous country, with more than 238 million people
living in an archipelago comprising over 17,000 islands.
Over the past decade... Show More +
the Indonesian economy has experienced
positive economic growth, reduced poverty, and made
continued progress towards many of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). For example, Indonesia has already
met and surpassed projected reductions in the number of
underweight children under five years old to below 18
percent and is on track to meeting its targets for reducing
overall child mortality and the targets for achieving
universal basic education. While clear progress has been
made on reducing poverty rates, inequality has persisted,
with the result that many children and families have not
shared in these gains. Over 30 million Indonesians live
below the poverty line (US $2 per day) and half of all
households are clustered around the poverty line. Of the
poor, 65 percent currently live in rural areas. For these
families, national economic improvements have brought only
modest gains in health and education, putting
children's development at risk and threatening national
progress. A notable achievement for Indonesia is that
primary school enrollment is now near 100 percent for boys
and girls of all income levels. However, as children move
through the primary years, the enrollment disparities seen
in Early Childhood Education and Development, or ECED
services re-emerge. Educational attainment profiles reveal
that while almost all children from all segments of society
start primary school, children from poorer households and
children from rural areas have more difficulties progressing
from lower levels of education to higher levels. Only 55
percent of rural children make it to junior secondary
school, and less than a quarter enroll in senior secondary.
In contrast, 80 percent of urban children make it to junior
secondary school and almost two-thirds enroll in senior secondary. Show Less -
Type: Other Education Study
Report#: 73358
Date: November 1, 2012
This document previews a forthcoming
World Bank book to be published in early 2013, entitled
Teacher Reform in Indonesia: the role of politics and
evidence based policymaking.... Show More +
The book tells the story of
Indonesia's efforts to reform and enhance the quality
of one of the largest and most complex education systems in
the world. This book will examine the following questions:
1) what was the pre-reform status of Indonesia's
education system and its teachers, the triggers for the
reform, the main components of the reform (as embodied in
the 2005 teacher and lecturer law and subsequent regulations
designed to implement it), and the political economy context
in which the law originated and has been implemented? 2)
What were the pre- and post-reform structures, strategies,
and processes of the Indonesian teacher management and
development system? 3) What was the impact of these efforts
both on teacher status, motivation, subject knowledge, and
pedagogical skills and on student outcomes? And 4) what have
been the implications of the reform for the efficiency of
Indonesia's education system both financial and in
terms of teacher distribution and student-teacher ratios and
what is still needed to ensure that the current reforms are,
in fact, sustainable? Show Less -
Type: Working Paper
Report#: 73624
Date: November 1, 2012
Author:
Ree, Joppe de ;
Shaeffer, Sheldon ;
Stevenson, Ritchie ;
Samarai, Samer Al ;
Ragatz, Andy ;
Chang, Mae Chu ;
Iskandar, Susiana
The 2005 teacher law aimed to improve
the quality of the Indonesian education system by addressing
the weaknesses in teacher competencies, their low motivation
and poor... Show More +
levels of pay. A central component of the law was
the teacher certification program. The Government of
Indonesia and the World Bank are in the process of
evaluating the impact of the teacher certification program.
This brief provides initial results of this evaluation
exercise by analyzing the direct effects that certification
may have by changing the motivation and behavior of teachers
who become certified and receive the professional allowance.
The findings show that certification has led to some
positive changes in teacher behavior but these changes have
not translated into improved student learning. This program
was designed to certify teachers who demonstrated minimum
levels of teaching competency. Strong incentives were also
introduced which entitled certified teachers to a
professional allowance equivalent to their basic pay.
Indonesia's certification program has raised the income
levels of teachers and made the teaching profession
significantly more attractive. However, differences between
the design and implementation of the program have limited
the impact of certification on the much needed improvements
in teacher quality. The policy brief shows that the academic
criteria used to certify teachers have not guaranteed
minimum teacher competency levels. Many teachers with
university bachelor's degrees have difficulties with
the competency tests that were administered for this study.
This is particularly worrying given that the tests were
designed to measure competencies in terms of subject
knowledge considered necessary for effective teaching. Show Less -
Type: Brief
Report#: 73264
Date: October 1, 2012
Author:
Ree, Joppe De ;
Al-Samarrai, Samer ;
Iskandar, Susiana
The Government of Indonesia is pursuing
a number of initiatives related to Early Childhood Education
and Development (ECED). These include increasing access to
early... Show More +
childhood education centers and developing and
formalizing holistic integrated ECED. This policy brief
provides an overview of the ECED sector and uses findings
from an ongoing World Bank-supported ECED project to make
preliminary policy recommendations to guide these
initiatives. This brief shows that the ECED project has had
several positive effects, including increased enrollment
rates and higher developmental outcomes for children. The
project objectives are to increase access to ECED services
among the poor and enhance children's school readiness.
This is done through a package of interventions which are
delivered sequentially and include: community facilitation,
block grants, and teacher training. Show Less -
Type: Brief
Report#: 73667
Date: October 1, 2012
There has long been a concern among
policymakers that too much of remittances are consumed and
too little saved, limiting the development impact of
migration. Financial... Show More +
literacy programs have become an
increasingly popular way to try and address this issue, but
to date there is no evidence that they are effective in
inducing savings among remittance-receiving households, nor
is it clear whether such programs are best targeted at the
migrant, the remittance receiver, or both. The authors
conducted a randomized experiment in Indonesia which
allocated migrants and their families to a control group, a
migrant-only training group, a family member-only training
group, and a training group in which both the migrant and a
family member were trained. Three rounds of follow-up
surveys are then used to measure impacts on the financial
knowledge, behaviors, and remittance and savings outcomes of
the remaining household. They find that training both the
migrant and the family member together has large and
significant impacts on knowledge, behaviors, and savings.
Training the family member alone has some positive, but
smaller effects, whilst training only the migrant leads to
no impacts on the remaining family members. The results show
that financial education can have large effects when
provided at a teachable moment, but that this impact varies
greatly with who receives training. Show Less -
Type: Policy Research Working Paper
Report#: WPS6157
Date: August 1, 2012
Author:
Zia, Bilal ;
Doi, Yoko ;
McKenzie, David
Using survey data from the Indonesian
manufacturing industry, this paper investigates the impact
of minimum wage on employment and wages offered by
Indonesian manufacturing... Show More +
firms from 1993 to 2006. It shows
that the estimated effects of minimum wage on employment are
positive within a province (i.e., with province fixed
effects), but negative within a firm (i.e., with firm fixed
effects), indicating the importance of using firm panel data
to reduce the endogeneity bias in estimates. It finds
significant heterogeneous effects of minimum-wage changes on
employment. The employment effects of minimum wages are
significant and negative among small firms and less educated
workers, but not among large firms and workers with high
school education and above. The negative employment impact
is more severe for non-production workers than for
production workers. The analysis also shows that the minimum
wage disproportionally affects women: most of the
non-production job losses are experienced by female workers.
Lastly, the paper finds that the minimum wage is more
correlated with the average wage of small firms than that of
large firms, suggesting that minimum wages are more binding
in small firms. Show Less -
Type: Policy Research Working Paper
Report#: WPS6147
Date: July 1, 2012
Author:
Nguyen, Ha ;
Wang, Liang Choon ;
Del Carpio, Ximena
A decade of implementation of
decentralization and regional autonomy in Indonesia has
produced a mixture of positive and negative results.
Indonesia has made much progress... Show More +
in implementing regional
autonomy, but urgent problems remain to be solved (USAID,
2009; Dwiyanto et al., 2007). In an attempt to address
various issues surrounding functional assignment, research
and public consultations have been undertaken with the
following two strategic purposes: (1) in the short-term, to
gather input to revise and improve the national policy on
decentralization and regional autonomy as stated in Law No.
32 Year 2004; and (2) in the long-term, to formulate a Grand
Design for Regional Autonomy (GDRA). This study focuses on
the assignment of governmental functions due to the
topic's widespread and extensive implications on
government administration in the regions. As has frequently
been documented, the implementation of regional autonomy in
Indonesia still leaves many problems related to functional
assignment among central, provincial, and district/city
governments (Ferrazzi, 2008; Ministry of Home Affairs,
2009). This paper will explain the findings of the research
conducted in the three aforementioned provinces. The
elaborations in this paper constitute problems and obstacles
in functional assignment, implications of the lack of
clarity in functional assignment toward various aspects of
regional government, and recommended actions to rectify and
reform functional assignment across government levels.
Recommendations are classified based on recommendations for
the revision of Law No. 32 Year 2004 and the formulation of GDRA. Show Less -
Type: Working Paper
Report#: 67652
Date: June 27, 2012
Author:
Dwiyanto, Agus
Indonesia has shown an increasing
commitment to education over the last decade. Since 2001,
spending has doubled in real terms largely as a result of a
constitutional... Show More +
requirement obligating the government to
spend a fifth of its budget on education. A cornerstone of
this increased investment has been a school grants program
aimed at providing financial support to all public, private
and religious primary and junior secondary schools. The
School Operational Assistance program (BOS), initiated by
the Ministry of Education and Culture in 2005, and provides
basic education schools with block grants. The program
currently provides grants to 228,000 schools benefiting an
estimated 43 million students. In 2012, 8.1 percent or Rp
23.5 trillion of the total government education budgets was
spent on BOS. The aim of the school grants program,
allocated on a per-student basis, is three-fold: to improve
access to and raise the quality of basic education, to
reduce the financial burden for students and to support
school based management reforms. Grants have supported the
purchase of goods and services meant to enhance the quality
of education (e.g. texts and library books, teaching
learning materials, teacher professional development
activities, and remedial learning) and have reduced the need
for schools to seek funds from parents to cover these
expenditures. The BOS program provides schools with greater
autonomy and flexibility in managing their resources.
Schools in turn are expected to use these resources in a
transparent and accountable way. The program has
strengthened school planning and budgeting processes and has
begun to open these up to parental and community oversight.
Given the traditionally passive role which parents play in
school activities and management, compounded by a lack of
information about school affairs, this clearly represents a
fundamental reform of education in Indonesia. Show Less -
Type: Brief
Report#: 71425
Date: June 1, 2012
Overcoming the twin challenges of child
labor and youth employment will be critical to
Indonesia's progress towards the millennium development
goals. Estimates presented... Show More +
in this report indicate that some
2.3 million Indonesian children aged 7-14 years still work
in employment. The current report examines the related
issues of child labor and youth employment in the context of
Indonesia. The report was developed jointly by the
Government and the three Understanding Children's Work
(UCW) partner agencies. As such, it provides an important
common basis for action in addressing child labor and youth
employment issues. Four related objectives are served by the
report: 1) improve the information base on child labor and
youth employment, in order to inform policy and programmatic
responses; 2) promote policy dialogue on child labor and the
lack of opportunities for decent and productive work for
youth; 3) analyze the relationship between early school
leaving, child labor and future status in the labor market;
and 4) build national capacity for regular collection and
analysis of data relating to child labor and youth
employment. The remainder of the report is structured as
follows. Chapter two briefly describes the national context,
including socio-economic trends and key human development
challenges facing the country. A chapter three and four
presents descriptive data relating to the extent and nature
of children's work, and to how children divide their
time between work and school. Chapter five assesses the
impact of children's work on their health and
educational status. Chapter six employs econometric tools to
assess key determinants of children's work and
schooling and their implications for policy. Chapter seven
assesses the extent of child labor in accordance with
national legislation. Show Less -
Type: Working Paper
Report#: 73756
Date: June 1, 2012
The School Operational Assistance
program (BOS), initiated by the Ministry of National
Education in 2005, and provides basic education schools with
block grants. The... Show More +
program currently provides grants to
228,000 schools benefiting an estimated 43 million students.
In 2012, 8.1 percent or Rp 23.5 trillion of the total
government education budgets was spent on BOS. The aim of
the school grants program, allocated on a per-student basis
is three-fold; to improve access to and raise the quality of
basic education, reduce the financial burden for students
and to support school based management reforms. Grants have
supported the purchase of goods and services meant to
enhance educational quality (e.g. texts and library books,
teaching-learning materials, teacher professional
development activities, and remedial learning) and have
reduced the need for schools to seek funds from parents to
cover these expenditures. The positive relationship between
BOSDA programs and learning outcomes suggests that regional
governments should be encouraged to introduce and allocate
more resources through BOSDA type programs. The Ministry of
Education and Culture could encourage these trends by
introducing performance-based transfers or matching grant
schemes that provide incentives for regional governments to
introduce and increase funding of BOSDA programs.
Introducing transfers of this kind will need to build on
existing equity-focused programs currently implemented from
the center. Show Less -
Type: Brief
Report#: 69870
Date: May 1, 2012
