The workshop brought together a very
wide and diverse audience, including, memmbers of the
scientific community, policy makers, representatives of the
private sector,... Show More +
and donor agencies, and it endorsed and
supported the initiative of the Conference of Ministers of
Agriculture in West and Central Africa (CMAWCA) to promote
an initiative that promotes regional integration in
technology development and transfer through the development
of a Framework for Action (FFA) and resolved to support the
SPAAR in developing an FFA to revitalize agricultural
research in the humid and sub-humid zones. The high quality
of the presentations and deliberations prompted the decision
to publish the summaries of the papers at the workshop. Show Less -
Type: Working Paper
Report#: 13944
Date: December 31, 1993
Author:
Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources
andRural Development (MAWRRD)
The Regional Program on Enterprise
Development (RPED) is designed to examine what specific
factors hinder enterprise development in Africa and what can
be done to mitigate... Show More +
them. RPED is a research initiative
which will collect and analyze a large, varied, and unique
set of data. RPED focuses on four manufacturing sectors
(textile and garment, food, woodworking, and metalworking)
in nine countries (Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana,
Kenya, Burundi, and Rwanda are treated as one data set.
Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe are the other countries
involved). The principal objectives of RPED's research
program are: 1) to develop a more precise understanding of
how various elements of the African business environment
influence private enterprise behavior and performance. 2) To
translate the research results into recommendations for more
effective policies and assistance programs for private
enterprise development. 3) To strengthen the analytic
capacity of African institutions. 4) To create the
capability for both donor agencies and African institutions
in the private enterprsie development field to monitor
trends and developments in industrial activity. RPED will
focus on regulatory polies, the principal determinants of
transaction costs, business support agents, the factors that
contribute to or hinder the acquisition of technological
capability, and firms' ressponses to infrastructure deficiencies. Show Less -
Type: Brief
Report#: 22789
Date: December 31, 1993
This paper reports on household size
changes in the Cote d'Ivoire between 1985 and 1988 as
evidenced by the Cote d'Ivoire Living Standards Survey
(CILSS). The decline,... Show More +
from 8.31 to just 6.32, cannot be
explained in terms of real-world changes alone, and so must
be due also to either sampling bias or non-sampling errors.
The paper identifies a change in sampling procedures as the
most likely cause of the problem. The over-enumeration of
large households in the early years of the survey is also
reflected in dwelling size changes. However, observed
declines in household size measured within the same sampling
arrangement, and even within the same panel of households,
suggest that there is also a real-world decline in household
size in Cote d'Ivoire. The paper concludes that care
must be taken in over-time and cross-section analyses with
the CILSS data, and an appropriate re-weighting of the data
is called for. Show Less -
Type: Publication
Report#: LSM97
Date: October 31, 1993
Author:
Coulombe, Harold ;
Demery, Lionel
The sampling aspects of a household data
set are important to analysts. The early years of the Cote
d'Ivoire Standards Survey (CILSS) had a sampling bias,
which seriously... Show More +
affected estimates of population statistics
such as household size. The bias arose from sampling
procedures that overrepresented larger dwellings. Assuming
that samples drawn in later years were unbiased, a
correction procedure is applied that uses weights based on
household size. Results from the weighted data are then
compared with the unweighted findings to assess the
seriousness of the bias. Estimates of household expenditure
per capita in the early years of the survey are found to be
significantly underestimated, resulting in an overestimation
of poverty. The sampling bias also resulted in an
underestimation of the upward trend in poverty during
1985-88. The CILSS has been a popular and fruitful data set
for policy analysis. These findings, however, cast doubt on
the robustness of earlier work. Thus, the effort to trace
sampling information is particularly worthwhile for
policy-oriented applied research. Show Less -
Type: Journal Article
Report#: 12521
Date: September 30, 1993
Author:
Demery, Lionel ;
Grootaert, Christiaan
Cocoa and coffee are the most important
crops in Cote d'Ivoire. Until recently, the difference
between world and administered producer prices provided an
important source... Show More +
of government revenue. As a result of a
continued decline of world prices of both crops, however,
the Ivoirien government was forced to cut producer prices in
half. Because 40 percent of Ivoirien households grow either
cocoa or coffee, this cut can be expected to have a
considerable impact on the welfare level of these
households. The authors use the 1985 Living Standards
Measurement Survey to estimate the welfare effects of
producer price changes for Ivoirien households, permitting
an evaluation of the probable consequences of the recent
price cut. Using nonparametric econometric techniques, they
find that, although many households will suffer losses of
income, the cuts will not have adverse distributional
effects: cocoa and coffee farmers are scattered throughout
the income distribution, but most are concentrated in the middle. Show Less -
Type: Journal Article
Report#: 14074
Date: September 30, 1993
Author:
Benjamin, Dwayne ;
Deaton, Angus
Correcting for sampling bias in the
measurement of welfare and poverty in the Cote d'Ivoire
living standards survey. Household welfare and the pricing
of cocoa and coffee... Show More +
in Cote d'Ivoire: lessons from the
living standards surveys. The determinants and consequences
of the placement of government programs in Indonesia. Labor
markets and adjustment in open Asian eocnomies: the Republic
of Korea and Malaysia. Explaining the relative decline of
agriculture: a supply-side analysis for Indonesia. Further
results on the macroeconomic effects of AIDS: the dualistic,
labor-surplus economy. Cumulative indexes of authors and
titles for Volume 7. Show Less -
Type: Publication
Report#: 17647
Date: September 30, 1993
Author:
Demery, Lionel ;
Grootaert, Christiaan ;
Benjamin, Dwayne ;
Deaton, Angus ;
Pitt, Mark M. ;
Rosenzweig, Mark R. ;
Gibbons, Donna M. ;
Mazumdar, Dipak ;
Martin, Will ;
Warr, Peter G. ;
Cuddington, John T.
In 1981, Cote d'Ivoire became one
of the first African countries to launch a structural
adjustment program with support from the Bank and the
International Monetary... Show More +
Fund. While Ivorian living standards
fell throughout the 1980s, the decline was gradual at first.
During the final years of adjustment (1985-86), the number
of people living in poverty remained steady at around 30
percent of the population, while extreme poverty fell from
10 percent to 6.4 percent. However, by 1988, poverty had
risen to 46 percent, with urban poverty almost doubling over
the level of the previous year. Although some of the Cote
d'Ivoire's poor showed a remarkable ability to
escape ability to escape poverty, its poorest were hit
hardest by structural change. To avoid deterioration in
basic needs, targeted interventions are the keys. Show Less -
Type: Brief
Report#: 21664
Date: July 31, 1993
Bank poverty report cites gains, and
presents challenges for improving the welfare of the poor in
the developing world. "Spirit of Beijing" helps
move GEF restructuring... Show More +
and replenishing process forward.
Social Policy and Resettlement Division established within
the Environment Department. Cote d'Ivoire begins
National Environmental Action Plan. Environmental action
programme endorsed for Central and Eastern Europe. Policy
model for acid rain in Asia in first phase of development.
Environmental assessment examined in first annual EA review.
Latin America and Caribbean Region Environment Division
(LATEN) dissemination note series. NESDA hosts Fourth
regional Workshop for environment and sustainable
development. Post-UNCED strategy addresses environmental
crisis in Africa. Show Less -
Type: Newsletter
Report#: 21119
Date: June 30, 1993
Author:
Snyder, Arlette [editor]
Sickness should make individuals less
productive by reducing their capacity to do work.
Measurement of this effect of morbidity on productivity
involves several measurement... Show More +
problems. First, there is no
consensus on how to measure adult morbidity in a household
survey of a low-income population. Second, if part of
earnings is used to improve health, how is the impact of
morbidity on productivity inferred? To consider the first
problem, surveys from Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana are
examined to assess whether self-reported functional activity
limitation due to illness is a reasonable indicator of
morbidity for wage earners. In both countries this form of
morbidity is about one day in the last four weeks and varies
in a plausible manner. To deal with both the measurement and
joint determination problems, an instrumental variable
estimation approach using local food prices and public
services is implemented for assessing how morbidity impacts
on wages and earnings. These estimates indicate that
morbidity is linked among men to declines in hourly wage
rates, and associated with reduced hours of work for wages,
and a reduced probability of entering the wage labor force.
Among much smaller samples of wage earning women, the
patterns between morbidity and wage rates and time
allocation are not uniform or statistically significant. Show Less -
Type: Publication
Report#: LSM95
Date: April 30, 1993
Author:
Schultz, T. Paul ;
Tansel, Aysit
Structural adjustment programs in
sub-Saharan African countries in the 1980s removed trade
restrictions, price controls, and export taxes and abolished
state-owned commodity... Show More +
marketing bodies. The authors studied
the effects of these policy changes on the coca sector,
using a global econometric model specifying major producer
countries through the vintage-capital approach. They focused
on Ghana and Nigeria (major cocoa producers that undertook
structural adjustment programs), as well as on Cote
d'Ivoire and Cameroon. The impact on world cocoa prices
of structural adjustment programs in Ghana and Nigeria was
relatively small. The results imply that, without structural
adjustment programs in Ghana and Nigeria, world cocoa prices
in the late 1980s would have been about US$1,060/ton (in
1985 constant dollars), instead of US$850/ton. So, without
the structural adjustment programs, 1989-90 world prices in
real terms would have been about 45 percent lower than they
were in the early 1980s, compared with an actual decline of
55 percent. Much more important in depressing prices in this
period was the rapid increase in production in Brazil, Cote
d'Ivoire, Indonesia, and Malaysia (which together
accounted for about 75 percent of the increased production
in that decade). That increased production resulted largely
from tree planting in response to higher world cocoa prices
in the late 1970s -- and subsequent increases in
productivity. The results of counterfactual simulations
suggest that cocoa production in Ghana would have been at
almost half its 1989-90 level if Ghana had not implemented
its structural adjustment program. The producers'
surplus would have been lower without the program, and the
government's budget deficit would have been
unsustainable. The effects of the structural adjustment
program in Nigeria are mixed. The simulation results show
lower cocoa production but higher government revenue without
the reforms. But the program was evaluated only three years
after the reforms, so the full effects on production had not
been realized. The structural adjustment programs in Ghana
and Nigeria had a negative effect on other cocoa-producing
countries in sub-Saharan Africa and the rest of the world --
producing an estimated loss (in government revenue from
cocoa exports and producer surplus) of about 15 percent in
other sub-Saharan African countries. Results show that both
Cote d'Ivoire and Cameroon would have been better off
had they set export taxes at a higher level (closer to an
estimated "optimal" level) at the same time that
they depreciated the real exchange rate. Producer prices
could have been sustained at their earlier higher level, or
even raised, without hurting government revenues. Structural
adjustment programs in Ghana and Nigeria had a negative
effect on producers in other countries, but not adopting
such policies would have been economically irrational,
contend the authors. Show Less -
Type: Policy Research Working Paper
Report#: WPS1129
Date: April 30, 1993
Author:
Coleman, Jonathan R. ;
Akiyama, Takamasa ;
Varangis, Panos N.
Cote d'Ivoire's economy
declined drastically in the second half of the 1980s. The
incidence of poverty climbed from 30 percent in 1985 to 35
percent in 1987, and jumped... Show More +
to 46 percent in 1988. But how
widespread was the collapse in living standards? Did a lucky
few escape the decline? Using panels of data from the Cote
d'Ivoire Living Standards Survey (for 1985-86, 1986-87,
and 1987-88) allowed the authors to track the level of
living for the same households over successive years. These
panels had not yet been used to examine the dynamics of
poverty in the second half of the 1980s. They find that
two-period poverty was generally less than poverty measured
from single-period snapshots. Surprisingly, a significant
number of the poorest of the poor improve their status over
the two years of the panel, even though there was a downturn
in the average fortunes of the poor. The authors find that
the lucky few are not so few. They were wide-spread
regionally - though in some socioeconomic groupings, the
poor had a greater chance to escape poverty amidst the
general decline in living standards. Finer investigation of
the characteristics of these groupings is hampered somewhat
by the small sample sizes of the panels. Show Less -
Type: Policy Research Working Paper
Report#: WPS1113
Date: March 31, 1993
Author:
Grootaert, Christiaan ;
Kanbur, Ravi
The author demonstrates what can happen
to the welfare of households and individuals, and to
poverty, in a low- to middle-income country, under
structural adjustment... Show More +
and recession. Cote d'Ivoire was
one of the first African countries to launch a structural
adjustment program with support from the World Bank and the
IMF. The program was sustained for six years (1981-86), then
abandoned in 1987-88 when a severe recession hit the
country. A new economic recovery program was initiated in
1989. Cote d'Ivoire presents a unique case study -
certainly in Africa - because four consecutive years of
comprehensive data on levels of living are available for the
period 1985-88, from the Cote d'Ivoire Living Standards
Survey. The first two years of data capture the situation at
the end of a sustained adjustment effort, when the economy
was growing moderately; the last two years capture a period
of pronounced macroeconomic decline and destabilization. The
author found that in the first period, the incidence of
poverty remained steady and the welfare level of the poor
actually rose. In 1987, on the other hand, poverty and
extreme poverty both became more widespread - a trend that
accelerated dramatically in 1988, when the incidence of
poverty rose from 35 percent to 46 percent. Over 1985-88,
the regional and socioeconomic patterns of poverty changed
markedly. The most important shift was the rapid increase in
urban poverty. Especially households of public sector
employees and those working in the informal sector were
hardest hit. Farmers appear to have benefitted during the
final years of the adjustment phase, while poverty incidence
among them increased sharply in 1987-88, especially among
export crop farmers. This occurred in spite of continued
maintenance of producer prices, suggesting that price
support alone is not sufficient to protect farm incomes. The
entire system of agricultural support must be maintained and
improved. The author found that basic needs fulfillment did
not decline as much as expenditure. But the burden of
whatever declines did occur fell disproportionately on the
very poor. The targeted provision of public services
(health, education, tap water, and so on) is thus a high priority. Show Less -
Type: Policy Research Working Paper
Report#: WPS1078
Date: January 31, 1993
Author:
Grootaert, Christiaan
The author reflects on the pros and cons
of using integrated household survey data in empirical
analysis aimed at providing a quantitative basis for policy
decisions... Show More +
affecting welfare, poverty, and the fulfillment of
basic needs. The experience examined is that of using four
years of data from the Cote d'Ivoire Living Standards
Survey (1985-88) to link changes in poverty and welfare to
macroeconomic trends. The author groups the lessons learned
from this work around four themes. Survey content: when
survey data are rich, transparency of methodology is
important. It is essential that analysts provide explicit
information about how their income and spending aggregates
were constructed. These aggregates must be deflated with a
regional price index, but prices should be collected
separately from household survey data. Data on household
spending and basic needs fulfillment are the key information
for poverty analysis. Sample size and design: bigger and
simpler is better. The author recommends increasing (at
least double) sample size in future living standards
surveys; this could be done without increasing the cost of
the survey by reducing or eliminating the income modules of
the questionnaire. It is important to involve analysts and
policymakers in survey design. They need to identify up
front, using current knowledge, the important socioeconomic
and target groups on which the survey must be able to
report. The sample designer can then compose the sample in
such a way that certain groups will be undersampled and
others oversampled, to make the analysis of the resulting
sample as useful as possible. Frequency of data collection:
the author recommends that an integrated survey of the CILSS
type be undertaken every four or five years, to provide
benchmark data and to permit in-depth analysis of household
behavior and response to policy, if the country has the
capability to fully analyze the data. In the intervening
years, a much simpler collection of household spending and
basic needs data can be used to monitor changes in welfare
and poverty. The role of panel data: to be really useful,
panel data collection should be extended over longer periods
than two years, although this increases the costs and
difficulties of finding the same households. If a country
undertakes an integrated survey every four to five years and
a lighter monitoring survey in between, a small, parallel,
panel survey could be conducted. The monitoring sample and
the panel sample should be drawn from the same master sample. Show Less -
Type: Policy Research Working Paper
Report#: WPS1079
Date: January 31, 1993
Author:
Grootaert, Christiaan
The authors report on an exercise in
economic statistics. They develop a regional price index for
Cote d'Ivoire building on the strengths of two
independent data sources:... Show More +
the Cote d'Ivoire Living
Standards Survey (CILSS) and the International Comparisons
Project (ICP). The CILSS collected detailed information on
household incomes, spending, employment, and so on, but its
coverage of prices left much to be desired. The ICP
collected a wealth of information on prices across the
country, but collected no information on household spending
patterns or other socioeconomic data. The authors bring
together these two sources to produce a regional price index
that they argue is superior to previous estimates based
solely on the Living Standards Survey. The procedures they
follow should be of interest to practitioners faced with
similar data shortcomings, particularly when working on
Africa. They show this to be no mere statistical exercise.
Using the new price index can have a significant effect on
earlier evaluations of poverty in Cote d'Ivoire. They
also use the new price information to construct
disaggregated indices by commodity category and by poverty group. Show Less -
Type: Policy Research Working Paper
Report#: WPS1080
Date: January 31, 1993
Author:
Grootaert, Christiaan ;
Kanbur, Ravi
Over the years, household surveys have
become a popular, valuable data source for empirical
research in microeconomics. In developing countries,
household survey data... Show More +
have become more available in the past
decade, as a result of several international programs. This
has spurred interest in the economics of the household in
the context of development economics. Many analysts give
little attention to the sampling design of the surveys they
use, taking the data produced by statisticians and survey
practitioners as is. At best, sampling weights are applied
to ensure that the results are representative. The authors
illustrate the need to pay close attention to the sampling
aspects of a household survey used in applied microeconomic
analysis - particularly for comparisons over time. This case
study shows that observed changes in household welfare and
in the incidence of poverty in Cote d'Ivoire between
1985 and 1988 vanish when corrections are applied to the
data for changes in sampling procedures; even the direction
of the trend is reversed. Similarly, the cross-sectional
patterns of welfare and poverty observed in earlier analyses
for 1985-86 prove to be incorrect. The Cote d'Ivoire
Living Standards Survey, conducted between 1985 and 1988,
has provided a popular, fruitful data set for policy
analysis. But according to the authors, the recorded decline
in mean household size during this period is due to sampling
bias in the early years of the survey. If this is true, the
robustness of the analyses based on these data is questionable. Show Less -
Type: Policy Research Working Paper
Report#: WPS1081
Date: January 31, 1993
Author:
Demery, Lionel ;
Grootaert, Christiaan
This paper examines the economic
determinants of child fostering decisions in Cote
d'Ivoire, where in 1985, one fifth of non-orphaned
children age 7-14 were living away... Show More +
from both natural
parents. The economic determinants of both sending and
receiving decisions are examined separately and evaluated
with respect to their support for child labor and human
capital explanations. The determinants for both sides of the
fostering market are then estimated simultaneously so that
the symmetry of fostering determinants can be formally
tested. The results indicate that important economic factors
affect fostering decisions on both sides of the fostering
market; however, different factors explain sending and
receiving decisions. The economic determinants also vary by
the sex of the child and whether the household is in an
urban or rural area. The findings are consistent with a
child labor explanation and inconclusive with respect to
schooling investments as a motive. Although the number of
children fostered out increases with family size, the paper
finds no evidence that children are fostered out because
parents cannot afford them. The symmetry of fostering
decisions could not be rejected; nevertheless, in all
regressions the significant determinants of the sending and
receiving decisions are different. Show Less -
Type: Publication
Report#: LSM92
Date: November 30, 1992
Author:
Ainsworth, Martha
Private sector assessments provide
information and analysis essential to formulating strategies
for alleviating constraints on private sector development.
They are meant... Show More +
to contribute both to the Bank's policy
dialogue with borrowing governments and to the formulation
of country assistance strategies. The authors examine the
constraints on growth faced by private enterprises and how
these relate to the policy and institutional environment in
Cote d'Ivoire. They employ new data sources as well as
surveys of, and in-depth interviews with, private
entrepreneurs. They focus on: the effects of taxes and labor
regulation on private firms; the impact of public spending
on private sector development; and the role of informality
in enterprise activity. Following are some of their
findings. Tax policy and enforcement impose a heavy
financial burden on a shrinking base of formal enterprises,
whose regulatory burden has also grown. Taxes are
increasingly independent of a firm's profits. This
substantial fixed cost may lead some businesses to exit
prematurely and may discourage others from formal entry. The
overall tax burden on small and medium-size enterprises has
risen disproportionately, to levels that discourage formal
participation in the economy. Informal firms pay some taxes,
but there is considerable leakage in collection. Unnecessary
rigidities in labor policies weigh less heavily than
expected on firms, because they avoid their full costs
through such means as subcontracting and apprenticeships.
The restrictions nonetheless limit firms' flexibility
of operation and ability to reward merit. In the 1980s,
public spending increasingly channeled limited financial
resources and human capital toward nondevelopment purposes,
including poorly performing enterprises and elite-oriented
services, precluding their use in the private sector. The
methods of financing public spending (such as withholding
taxes and accumulating arrears) have sharply curtailed the
capital available to private enterprises. The public
sector's dramatic accumulation of arrears and growing
reputation as a bad customer are undermining the competitive
private supply of goods and services to the government.
Government employment policies attract many of the most
qualified potential entrepreneurs and business professionals
to government employment. Rather than a sharp divide, there
is a continuum between small informal and large formal
firms. Some medium-size and large formal firms engage in
informal behavior, and large firms sometimes lower their
costs through links with informal firms - including
purchases of inputs that have escaped regulation and taxes. Show Less -
Type: Policy Research Working Paper
Report#: WPS1047
Date: November 30, 1992
Author:
Rueda-Sabater, Enrique ;
Stone, Andrew
This paper describes a general
equilibrium based social policy model for Cote d'Ivoire
whose aim is both to facilitate analysis of a wide range of
social policy options,... Show More +
any of which could conceivably be
pursued in Cote d'Ivoire over the next five or ten
years, and to provide a basis for further model development
to cover explicit monetary, macro, and stabilization issues
which are central to current Ivorian policy debate. As it
now stands, the model is a classical real side general
equilibrium model in the public finance tradition, modified
to capture such key Ivorian features as domestic price
stabilization schemes, large interhousehold transfers, the
informal sector, and other features. The model allows for
detailed analysis within a general equilibrium framework.
This also captures relative price effects, financing
implications, resource allocation, and other economy-wide
effects missing in existing work on targeting policies. The
paper describes the model in great detail by giving examples
of its application, first by analyzing the tax incidence in
Cote d'Ivoire, and second by evaluating the
anti-poverty programs. The authors draw conclusions from the
model and plot a path for the future. Show Less -
Type: Poverty & Social Policy Working Paper
Report#: 11262
Date: October 31, 1992
Author:
Ngee - Choon Chia ;
Wahba, Sadek ;
Whalley, John
Using data from Cote d'Ivoire, this
paper examines the impact of public policies on three
anthropometric outcomes: height for age and weight for
height of children as... Show More +
well as body mass index of adults.
During the eighties, low growth rates in Cote d'Ivoire
were accompanied by an economic adjustment program which
included substantial cuts in public spending together with
increases in the relative price of foods. If reductions in
social spending resulted in lower availability and quality
of health care services, then results suggest that child
health (particularly height for age) will have been
adversely affected. The provision of basic services (such as
immunizations) and ensuring facilities are equipped with
simple materials (such as having basic drugs in stock) will
yield high social returns in terms of improved child health.
Food prices have tended to rise in Cote d'Ivoire during
the eighties and the authors find that higher food prices
have had a significantly detrimental impact on the health of
Ivorian children (as measured by weight for height) and
adults (as indicated by lower body mass indices). In
contrast, the effects of income on health are significant
but quite small, except in the case of adult women. Show Less -
Type: Publication
Report#: LSM89
Date: August 31, 1992
Author:
Thomas, Duncan ;
Lavy, Victor ;
Strauss, John
This paper describes a general
equilibrium based social policy model for Cote d'Ivoire
whose aim is both to facilitate analysis of a wide range of
social policy options,... Show More +
any of which could conceivably be
pursued in Cote d'Ivoire over the next five or ten
years, and to provide a basis for further model development
to cover explicit monetary, macro, and stabilization issues
which are central to current Ivorian policy debate. As it
now stands, the model is a classical real side general
equilibrium model in the public finance tradition, modified
to capture such key Ivorian features as domestic price
stabilization schemes, large interhousehold transfers, the
informal sector, and other features. The model allows for
detailed analysis within a general equilibrium framework.
This also captures relative price effects, financing
implications, resource allocation, and other economy-wide
effects missing in existing work on targeting policies. The
paper describes the model in great detail by giving examples
of its application, first by analyzing the tax incidence in
Cote d'Ivoire, and second by evaluating the
anti-poverty programs. The authors draw conclusions from the
model and plot a path for the future. Show Less -
Type: Policy Research Working Paper
Report#: WPS925
Date: June 30, 1992
Author:
Ngee-Choon Chia ;
Wahba, Sadek ;
Whalley, John
