Law, Justice and Development Week 2020 - Legal Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic

8:00 - 9:00 AM ET | By Invitation Only

Sovereign Debt and COVID-19

Introduction

• Wolfgang Bergthaler, Senior Counsel, Legal Department, International Monetary Fund

Speakers

• Deborah Zandstra, Partner, Clifford Chance
• Oumar Dissou, Debt Management Resident Advisor, International Monetary Fund, Gabon
• Stella Rusine Nteziryayo, Director Debt Management, Ministry of Finance, Rwanda

Moderators

• Yan Liu, Deputy General Counsel, Legal Department, International Monetary Fund
• J. Clifford Frazier, Deputy General Counsel, Legal Vice Presidency, World Bank

9:00 - 10:00 AM ET

Opportunities for the Energy Transition and for the Fight Against Energy Poverty after COVID-19 | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• Leonardo Sempertegui, General Legal Counsel, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
• Hafida Lahiouel, Director of Legal Affairs, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
• Helene Bertaud, Lead Counsel, Operations for Infrastructure, Urban Development and PPP Operations, World Bank Group Singapore Hub

Moderator

• Markus Pohlmann, Senior Counsel, Environmental and International Law, World Bank

Summary

The COVID-19 pandemic inadvertently helped the world meet its emissions targets, but there is risk of a rebound. This possible outcome therefore emphasizes the importance of sustaining  progress made in a post-pandemic era., and to use lessons-learned from the COVID-19 experience going forward for transformational change to achieve the Paris Agreement commitments.

Energy transition is under way Many countries have made net zero commitments, and spurred by science and public demand for accountability, big emitters, including both signatories and non-signatories to the Paris Agreement, have formally committed to emission reductions through policy and legislation. However, for these formal commitments to be effective, they must be of the right quality.

To accelerate the energy transition, a commonsense approach is required. Short-term concerns including jobs should be balanced against long-term considerations such as transformation. Fossil fuels will be required for decades to come and abandoning them may create undesirable volatilities like job losses. Therefore, a range of coherent economic incentives should be employed, coupled with a diverse energy mix.

For the fight against energy poverty, poorer countries with less developed energy systems will require assistance. Therefore, partnerships are important, including partnerships to develop knowledge for demonstration effects, partnerships to finance energy projects, and partnerships to improve efficiencies like private participation and institutional capacity.
 

Key takeaways

• Energy transition requires both quality policy and legislation measures in order to be effective. To be effective, legislation for the energy transition must be of the right quality.

• The need for fossil fuels, at least in the short-term, requires inclusive approaches to energy transition.

• Partnerships are key to dealing with energy poverty.

11:00 - 12:30 PM ET

COVID-19 and Human Rights: Impacts and Lessons Learned | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• Tlaleng Mofokeng, UN Special Rapporteur on Right to Health
• Philippe Lacoste, Director, Sustainable Development, French Ministry of Europe and Foreign Affairs
• Jan Wouters, Professor of International Law and International Organizations, University of Leuven, Co-Chair of the GFLJD Working Group on Human Rights and Sustainable Development
• Joelle Grogan, Senior Lecturer in Law, Middlesex University
• Paul-Joël Kamtchang, Executive Secretary, Adisi-Cameroun
• Vanessa Murphy, Legal Adviser, International Committee of the Red Cross

Moderator

• Siobhan McInerney-Lankford, Senior Counsel, World Bank, Co-chair of the GFLJD Working Group on Human Rights and Sustainable Development

Summary

The COVID-19 pandemic has severely affected different human rights, such as the right to life, right to work, right to education, right to information, right to freedom of movement, etc. This exacerbated other problems such as poverty, corruption, imbalance on access to health care and social security, increase of domestic and gender-based violence cases. 

Nonetheless, the pandemic highlighted the importance of prioritizing health care, education and the right to information of people. This challenging time also stresses universality and interdependence of human rights in a more meaningful way and the importance of states’ obligations and cooperation. States should learn lessons from this unprecedented global crisis moving forward. It is recommended that States should ensure legal certainty and clarity in public communication, this mitigates fake news and unreliable information or opinion. Rules should be certain, consistent, and prospective in their application. States should ensure transparency in decision-making processes and that scientific decisions must be accessible; and comply with international law and human rights standards. States must aim to deliver rapid, coordinated, and collective actions, and should protect oversight mechanisms to ensure quality and effectivity of legislative measures and ensure checks and balances. States should engage with experts and stakeholders and learn from international experience (i.e. follow guidance from multilateral and international institutions). Moreover, States should reform laws following identification and analysis of best practices both on the domestic and international level.
 

Key takeaways

• Uncertainty does not suspend human rights and we do not have to trade off rights during a pandemic.
• International cooperation and coordination are very important during this unprecedented challenging time.
• Responses to this global health emergency should be guided by the principles of rule of law, human rights, and good governance.
• Restrictions curbing the virus should be guided by the principles of legality, necessity, proportionality, temporariness, effective oversight, and prospectivity.

1:00 - 2:00 PM ET

Legal, Policy, and Institutional Solutions for Food and Human Insecurity: Female-Owned SMEs, Fragile Regions, and COVID-19 | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• Esther Dassanou, Head, Affirmative Finance Action for Women in Africa Programme, African Development Bank
• Dorte Verner, Lead Agriculture Economist, Agriculture and Food Global Practice, World Bank
• Frank Samolis, Partner and Co-Chair, International Trade Group, Squire Patton Boggs (US) LLP

Moderator

• Valentina Okaru-Bisant, CEO, Founder, and General Counsel, Afrocosmo Development Impact, LLC, and Adjunct Professor, The Catholic University of America

Summary

Food security is a fundamental element of poverty reduction. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has affected freedom of movement and undermined food production in conflict and non-conflict areas. Closure of businesses, staff reduction, and lack of mobility further exacerbated food insecurity and worsened poverty. The pandemic also heightened challenges of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Chad and female-owned small and medium enterprises (SMEs) that constitute the backbone of African economies.

With this, renewed urgency for solutions that are economically viable and sustainable are needed more than ever. States have the critical obligation to come up with solutions, which can include multilateralism and incorporation of SMEs and women in treaties and international agreements. States should promote the inclusion and opportunities for women and refugees, and it is also recommended that financial systems and regulations should be more inclusive for women and SMEs to increase productivity. Digital and technological solutions for women to sell their products should also be prioritized. Moreover, to further solve food insecurity, accurate data and analytics are needed to promote multilateral engagement. Adaptation of implementation arrangement for multisectoral participation—coordination between states, multilateral institutions, NGOs, and other global actors are important solutions. Faster provision of funds is also encouraged to help fragile regions. 
 

Key takeaways

• Food insecurity presents many issues, which are exacerbated by the current pandemic. Refugees play an important role in food security given their agricultural background.

• Women and refugees should be part of the system, and global actors should design a program for their inclusion to increase productivity.

• It is recommended that financing mechanisms should be more innovative and lessen risks in favour of SMEs, especially in fragile regions.

• Coordination between States and global actors is necessary to help curb and address food insecurity challenges.  

3:00 - 4:00 PM ET

Women's Economic Empowerment and the Impact of COVID-19 - The IMF's Role and Legal Developments | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• Audrey Yiadom, Counsel, International Monetary Fund
• Alessandro Gullo, Assistant General Counsel, International Monetary Fund
• Karla Vasquez, Senior Counsel, International Monetary Fund
• Lisa Kolovich, Economist, International Monetary Fund

Moderator

• Katharine Christopherson, Assistant General Counsel, International Monetary Fund

Summary

The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately affected women and girls in many ways (e.g., reduced access to healthcare services, increased childcare needs, and higher incidents of gender-based violence). This is especially the case in sub-Saharan Africa where COVID-19 affects women more than men. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has created measures in order to alleviate these problems given the impact of gender-based issues on economic growth and as the gender lens is critical for IMF-supported programs, and the institutions aims to address this issue through conditionality. In addition, the IMF helps support the informal sector where women are over-represented. There are two main sources of funding that can be utilized to reduce the gender inequality gap: 1) the General Resources Account available for all IMF members; and 2) the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust available for low-income countries. Moreover, there are gender-responsive measures (e.g. gender budgeting) which contribute to sustain finance overtime.
 

Key takeaways

• A good practice in a legal reform is to give a constitutional underpinning of gender equality in the design of policy measures.

• In order to enhance transparency, the law should be explicit about an obligation of the government in making data regarding gender-sensitive responses available.

• The law could increase political accountability of the government by providing a systematic framework which requires the government to share information regarding gender-sensitive responses.

8:00 - 9:30 AM ET

Urgency of Online Courts for Commercial Disputes | WATCH THE REPLAY

Opening Remarks

• Sandie Okoro, Senior Vice President and Group General Counsel, and Vice President of Compliance, World Bank

Speakers

• Richard Susskind, President, Society of Computers and Law, United Kingdom
• Olena Kibenko, Judge of the Grand Chamber of the Supreme Court, Ukraine 
• Klaus Decker, Chair Justice and Development Community of Practice, World Bank

Moderators

• Michael Strauss, General Counsel, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
• Veronica Bradautanu, Principal Counsel, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

Summary

Although online courts have been in existence in some jurisdictions for more than a decade, COVID-19 has pushed this idea into mainstream thinking. In the digital space, the pandemic has made certain realities possible in days what many have tried to accomplish in years. It has forced courts to quickly adapt to use remote and virtual technology. It has also forced court users to adjust online services as a substitute for their day in court. The ensuing lockdowns have made online courts a critical tool for resolving commercial disputes (particularly amongst small and medium enterprises), a particularly  important option in light of an expected surge in commercial cases due to the pandemic. It is vital to ensure that vulnerable people are not left behind and that online courts help close justice gaps. This is especially true for the 1.5 billion individuals who have unresolved justice issues as well as the women who enjoy only three quarters of the legal protection that their male counterparts have. Furthermore, COVID-19 has exposed weaknesses in justice systems while likely inundating courts with new cases. For example, there are steep rises in reported cases of gender-based violence, and in the severity of gender-based violence which puts women in a very vulnerable position. On the one hand, online courts can be a tool to address these issues: they are cheaper and faster, there is a notable reduction in backlog, and speedy decision-making processes are ensured. . Online courts also increase access to justice through technology, and in doing so, transforms how courts operate. On the other hand, many challenges persist as as litigants lack adequate skills to participate in the process, especially in developing economies where there is an added difficulty of accessing and maintaining expensive digital tools. Online litigation procedures also require lawyers to file processes on behalf of clients, increasing the cost of legal action. 
 

Key takeaways

• Successful court adaptation should be made permanent and scaled up, not just during the pandemic but in the long term. This may even include the use of artificial intelligence to determine some cases.
• It is essential to simplify procedures so that litigants can better institute proceedings themselves online without the need of legal assistance. This may include enhanced usage of written presentations to save time.
• Judges and lawyers need to be open-minded and flexible to allow online courts to work effectively. Focus should be put on the outcome (access to justice) not the traditional procedures.

9:00 - 11:00 AM ET

Closed Session (For IFI General Counsels)

International Financial Institution General Counsel Roundtable

11:00 - 12:00 PM ET

Public Healthcare Procurement during the COVID-19 Pandemic: How to Reconcile Urgency with Integrity?  | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• Roberto Chieppa, Secretary General of the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Italy
• Ana Cristina Calderon Ramirez, Sector Specialist, Public Procurement, Inter-American Development Bank
• Vinay Sharma, Global Director, Procurement, World Bank
• Paulo Magina, Head, Public Procurement, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
• Sean Darby, Senior Project Officer, Transparency International’s Health Initiative

Moderator

• Enrico Canzio, Chief Counsel and Member of the Procurement Complaints Committee, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

Summary

The COVID-19 pandemic caused a worldwide emergency in public health procurement, which created a simultaneous competition between buyers. This situation has increased prices and disrupted supply chains with significant integrity concerns. In response to this uncertainty, countries have enabled their legislation and digitalized procedures to connect procurement effectiveness and transparency. Also, strong cooperation between countries and international organizations has provided transactional flexibility, process acceleration and monitoring. In this respect, civil society has further played a key role in demanding a pellucid contracting process, accountability, and data release.
 

Key takeaways

• Fostering communication transparency and simplifying bureaucratic procedures through legal tools enhance procurement integrity and better preparedness for post-COVID-19.
• Digitalization and the use of technology permit a combination of rapid response and effectiveness in procurement while keeping a record of operations.
• Monitoring and coordinating stakeholders’ efforts through a priority-based-approach enforce the integrity of procurement processes.
• Encouraging civil society involvement in the management and decision-making process can prevent transparency issues.

1:00 - 2:00 PM ET

Insolvency in the Context of COVID-19: Can Out-of-Court Workouts Flatten the Curve of Insolvency Cases? | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• Scott Atkins, Partner, Deputy Chair and Head of Risk Advisory, Norton Rose Fulbright, Australia
• Bruno Navarro, Founder, Ipso Facto Ltd., United Arab Emirates
• Ancois Plaatje, Deputy Director, Banking Supervision Department, Bank of Namibia
• Tayo Oduwole, CEO, Frontier Capital Alternative Assets, Nigeria

Moderator

• Mahesh Uttamchandani, Practice Manager, World Bank

Summary

Corporate insolvency is forecasted to grow by 25 percent between 2019 and 2021 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, corporate debts in emerging markets are at an all-time high. However, insolvency regimes in many emerging markets are ill-equipped to handle complex cases and cope with a surge of cases under the COVID crisis. An out-of-court workout could be a good alternative to an insolvency regime, as the former is less costly and time-consuming than the latter. An out-of-court workout would also benefit SMEs which do not have sufficient capital to pursue their cases in an insolvency court. In addition, an out-of-court workout is better than insolvency from the perspectives of both creditors and debtors. For instance, banks think about an out-of-court workout as the best way for recovery. Meanwhile, companies consider an out-of-court workout as the best way to preserve their value. Nevertheless, it is still important to have an effective insolvency law function in the background in order to support out-of-court workouts. For example, in a hybrid approach, the court can validate and make an out-of-court workout binding upon all creditors.
 

Key takeaways

• Small and medium enterprises have simple business structures (e.g. few creditors). Hence, out-of-court workouts could be utilized in order to reach a consensus in an efficient and effective way.
• Successful out-of-court workouts need to be driven by best practices.
• There are many ways to improve the efficiency of out-of-court workouts (e.g. following due processes and creating awareness that a going concern is the best way to preserve value).

3:00 - 4:00 PM ET

Gender, Laws and COVID-19 | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• Sara Mbago-Bhunu, Director of East and Southern Africa Division, International Fund for Agricultural Development
• Joan Grogan, Head of Finance and Impact Investments Unit, International Fund for Agricultural Development 
• Victoria Stanley, Senior Land Administration Specialist, World Bank
• Olena Mykhalchenko, Legal Analyst, Women, Business and the Law, World Bank

Moderator

• Monica Restrepo, Chief Counsel, Legal Vice Presidency, World Bank

Summary

The current worldwide health uncertainty affects vulnerable people more negatively, particularly women, than non-vulnerable individuals. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated women’s living conditions and increased domestic and gender-based violence. While enduring home evictions, women also face (il)legal denial of production means (land, asset, and financing), access to justice, and even the possibility to telecommute. In this environment, some countries have chosen to empower women by supporting caregivers or home-based workers. Studies have revealed that endowing women with production tools increases food production from 20 percent to 30 percent, and allows them to participate in a fairer distribution of prosperity. As a result, there is an urgent need to address women's vulnerability iduring this health emergency.
 

Key takeaways

• Championing women’s leadership and involvement in the decision-making process through policies and legal reform is a crucial element to foster economic and social development.
• Providing women with good education and information on their rights allows them to deal with women’s right denials.
• Digital tools and technology could play an essential role in eliminating gender discrimination.

8:00 - 9:30 AM ET

COVID-19 and Justice System Institutions | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• The Honorable Lady Justice Lillian Tibatemwa-Ekirukubinza, Professor of Law and Supreme Court Judge, Uganda
• Professor Y.S. Lee, Director and Professorial Fellow of the Law and Development Institute and Visiting Professor of Law, Georgia State University College of Law
• Professor Muna B. Ndulo, Professor of International and Comparative Law and Director of the Berger Legal Studies Program, Cornell University

Moderator

• Sheila Braka Musiime, Chief Counsel, Africa and Middle East and North Africa, Legal Vice Presidency, World Bank

9:00 - 10:00 AM ET

Review of Legal Experiences and Global Best Practices Related to COVID-19 | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• Sandie Okoro, Senior Vice President and Group General Counsel, and Vice President of Compliance, World Bank
• Dayna Bowen Matthew, Dean, The George Washington University Law School
• H. E. Edwin Tong, Minister for Culture, Community and Youth and Second Minister for Law, Singapore
• Alberto Rodriguez, Director, Strategy and Operations, Human Development Practice Group, World Bank

Moderator

• Vikram Raghavan, Lead Counsel, Legal Vice Presidency, World Bank 

Summary

The world continues to endure the devastating ramifications of COVID-19 on the health and lives of people across the globe. Many lives have been lost and due to the pandemic-driven global recession, 1.4 percent of the global population will likely fall into extreme poverty. The pandemic also presents a myriad of obstacles: a slower track record in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030, a gargantuan impact on law, the delivery of justice, and the legal profession more broadly. Countries have imposed restrictions with various justifications: some have declared emergencies under their constitutions, some have relied on disaster management laws, and others enacted new legislation to tackle the pandemic. In addition, COVID-19 has created a wide array of legal and regulatory challenges. These include disruptions to contract and commercial relations between individuals, small and large businesses. Sometimes, the potential for cross-border disputes exist, especially regarding imported essential public health services, equipment and vaccines. Laws and regulations are being enacted to reduce operating costs and wage bills, but these may conflict with labor and employee protection. Companies also need to implement new regulations for employee health and safety. Individual rights to privacy must be balanced against the public need for contact tracing and surveillance. And, in addition to the rising backlog of existing cases, courts are likely to face an avalanche of new litigation due to COVID-19. Such litigation could include pandemic related death or injury lawsuits, criminal prosecutions, commercial and contractual disputes, real estate matters, bankruptcy and insolvency, consumer complaints, insurance liability, domestic violence and family law cases. This will impact access to courts, especially among those who are already disproportionately deprived.
 

Key takeaways

• Countries need draft specialized laws for disease outbreaks, pandemics, and other catastrophes, which provide a statutory framework for lockdown and reopening decisions. These are necessary to avoid and/or overcome obstacles. Legal professionals, particularly the newer generation, should be well-informed about the role of law in redressing inequalities, particularly in accessing health and other services.

• Jurisdictions should work together to address the cross-border effects of COVID-19.

11:00 - 12:30 Heure de Washington DC | Session en français

Accès à la Justice en temps de crise sanitaire : une opportunité pour innover : Regards croisés Afrique/Europe  | REVOIR LA VIDEO

Intervention d’introduction

• Didier Reynders, Commissaire Européen à la Justice
• Emmanuel Sibidi Darankoum, Secrétaire Permanent, Organisation pour l’Harmonisation du Droit des Affaires en Afrique (OHADA)

Intervenants

• Coco Kayudi, Bâtonnier de l’Ordre des Avocats de Kinshasa/Matete, République Démocratique du Congo 
• Christiane Feral-Schuhl, Avocate au Barreau de Paris et du Québec, Présidente, Conseil National des Barreaux 
• Régine Dooh Collins, Notaire, Membre de l’Association du Notariat Francophone (ANF)
• Lionel Galliez, Notaire, Vice-président pour l’Europe de l’Union internationale du notariat (UINL)
• Alain Ngongang, Huissier de justice, Président de l’Union africaine des huissiers de justice (UAHJ)
• Patrick Sannino, Huissier de Justice, Président de la Fondation Européenne des Huissiers

Modératrice

• Anne-Charlotte Gros, Directrice Générale de la Fondation pour le Droit Continental

Clôture du débat 

• Klaus Decker, Spécialiste senior du secteur public, Banque Mondiale

Résumé

La crise sanitaire relative à la pandémie de la Covid-19 a affecté le fonctionnement des systèmes de justice à travers le monde, en particulier ceux d’Afrique et d’Europe. Ces deux continents sont confrontés presque aux mêmes problèmes principaux à des degrés différents. L’interruption des services juridiques a non seulement affecté socialement et financièrement les professionnels du droit, mais aussi leurs partenaires. Ainsi, se fait sentir la nécessité de trouver des solutions alternatives afin de se soutenir mutuellement. À ce titre, le numérique a joué un rôle de premier plan dans le concours du rétablissement des systèmes de justice. Si, en Afrique par exemple, la Cour d’arbitrage de l’OHADA a lancé l’initiative cyber-droit, les Européens ont, de leur côté, adopté une approche similaire en créant des plateformes digitales permettant d’assister les usagers des services juridiques. Avec l’augmentation des violences domestiques et celles fondées sur le genre durant les périodes de confinement, ces plateformes ont permis aux professionnels du droit d’offrir des services juridiques gratuits aux citoyennes et citoyens, surtout les populations vulnérables et celles souffrant de handicaps. Toutefois, le niveau de préparation dans l’adoption des technologies digitales diffère entre les deux continents. Certains pays européens ont été mieux préparés à l’implantation de ces technologies et prévoient d’ailleurs de les pérenniser.
 

Points clés

• Le numérique devrait continuer de jouer un rôle important dans la distribution des services juridiques afin d’éviter d’éventuelles interruptions de services ; 
• La coordination de la solidarité internationale devrait être renforcée pour soutenir les systèmes de justice faisant face à des défis financiers et techniques en temps de crise ;
• Les systèmes de justices devraient se préparer à une forte demande de services après la crise sanitaire en adoptant des approches plus résilientes.

2:00 - 2:45 PM ET | By Invitation Only

SIDE EVENT | Law Societies Compact and Forum for SDG16 | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• Sandie Okoro, Senior Vice President and Group General Counsel, and Vice President of Compliance, World Bank
• David Greene, President, Law Society for England and Wales
• Penelope Warne, Board Member, Law Society of England and Wales
• Christiane Feral-Schul, President, French Bar Association
• Olivier Cousi, Batonnier, Paris Bar
• Lourdes Escaffi-Venes, Secretary General, Inter-Amercian Bar Association

Master of Ceremony

• Amir Shaikh, Adviser to the Senior Vice president and Group General Counsel, Word Bank

3:30 - 4:30 PM ET

Access to Justice and Technology: A People-Centered Approach  | WATCH THE REPLAY

Speakers

• Haerang Lee, Judge, Suwon District Court, South Korea
• Margaret Hagan, Director, Stanford University, The Legal Design Lab 
• Rebecca Sandefur, Faculty Fellow, American Bar Foundation

Moderator

• Francesca Daverio, Co-Task Team Leader, Access to Justice and Technology Project, Legal Vice Presidency, World Bank

Summary

COVID-19 has brought to light several issues globally around access to justice for the most vulnerable. There is currently an opportunity to reform the justice system, and this is the time to act. A people-centered approach to access to justice aims to focus on the individuals, who the justice system affects, as opposed to the institutions, such as courts that provide justice. As part of this approach, the benefits of a tech-driven justice system are evident: flexible court timings have seen default rates decrease, the use of pictures and recordings provide the methods to demonstrate evidence, and the Internet provides access to helpful resources. At the same time, the digital divide harms those most vulnerable and without proper access to the Internet, artificial intelligence programs have been shown to have racial and other demographic biases, and the large amount of personal legal data creates a risk of leaks. The pandemic has accelerated the digitization of the court systems, and this opportunity should be used to collect data on access to justice to help frame a more equitable justice system going forward. The data-driven model in South Korea demonstrates how the digitization of courts should be instituted in a slow manner that does not leave behind the society’s most vulnerable. 
 

Key takeaways

• A people-centered approach to access to justice leads to the conclusion that most justice issues do not reach lawyers and courts.
• The use of technology in justice has many benefits and challenges. Now is the time to gather data to help shape the justice system going forward.
• The South Korean court system provides a good example of a data-driven, people-centric approach where court system digitization does not exclude the most vulnerable.